The archaeological and literary sources point to different timelines for the origin of formal temple structures in India.
Archaeological Evidence: The excavations at Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh) and Nagari (Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) provide the earliest physical, ground-level proof of structural shrines. These were dedicated to Vasudeva (Vishnu) and featured a unique elliptical floor plan made of timber, thatch, and early brickwork.
Literary Evidence: The Arthashastra, traditionally attributed to Kautilya (c. 4th century BCE), frequently references city planning that includes designated spaces for deities (devagṛha) and sacred sites (puṇyasthāna)- (1.16.25).
teṣāmasambhāṣāyāṃ yācakamattonmattasuptapralāpaiḥ puṇyasthānadevagṛhacitralekhyasaṃjñābhirvā cāramupalabheta ||
"When these (spies) cannot converse with one another, they shall gather information through beggars, drunkards, insane persons, those talking in their sleep, or by means of signs, secret writings, or paintings displayed at holy places and temples."
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This strongly suggests that a well-established tradition of public and royal worship in fixed structures existed long before Kautilya’s period (~400 BCE).
